DEFINITIONS - UNDERSTANDING THE THEORY OF PURE ECONOMIC, FINANCIAL OR ECONOMIC HISTORY OF ECONOMIC

Market as the main mechanism in solving economic problems, provided the political support of intellectual freedom; the flow of the Chicago economists view the economy as a condition necessary but not sufficient condition for creating a free society, the management of administrative and economic policy interventions will be ad hochanya damaging the economic situation, in terms of monetary and fiscal policy, it emphasizes the importance of continuity of flow; monetarism is considered better than fiskalisme in the regulation of macroeconomic, fiscal policy is believed to be the appropriate vehicle for alleviating poverty, but for the redistribution of income above the poverty line would be more many result in losses as well as disciplinary imperialism that highlight the application of economic analysis by economists of all fields that are usually regarded as other disciplines / external such as history, politics, law, and sociology. This flow of opinion on a number of important issues such as trade regulations and monetary policy has changed several times during the years of development. Simons, for example, believe that the maintenance of an active competition policy through the implementation of strict anti-monopoly law should take precedence, while Friedman and Stigler would argue that monopolies and oligopolies is only temporary and in the long term is not too important. Simons also argues that monetary policy should be based on a certain price level. This means that the government should conduct monetary expansion if the price level down, and otherwise implement monetary policy kontraksioner if price levels were rising. Friedman is impressed by the inertia reaction to changes in monetary price level, it suggests a constant monetary growth. After retirement and death of Stigler, Friedman and his retirement and then moved to the Pacific coast, the flow of the Chicago economists lost some of his insights about public policy so that more economists get Nobel prizes and other awards on the basis of their contribution in pure economic theory, financial economics or economic history. In macroeconomics, Robert Lucas has emerged as a leader in a "new classic" or "rational expectations" for their pioneering research in monetary and financial economics. Even in the mid - 1990s, Lucas and Gary Becker did not have much to discuss public policy is considered as a role model the flow of Chicago, replacing Friedman and Stigler. Two of the best work that can embrace the doctrine of Chicago this is the work of Simons (1938) entitled Economic Policy for a Free Society, and the work of Friedman (1962), entitled Capitalism and Freedom.

DEFINITIONS - UNDERSTANDING PARENTING (Childcare)

Helpful parenting or children to ngacu on government policy with regard to maintenance and child care. More generally, this term refers to the various ideas and practices relating to child care. Government agencies have long been actively involved in this activity, especially for families who for various reasons are not able to perform the function well-child care. The main concern in this function since the 1970s is the prevention of violence on children both physically and sexually. Attention is growing more and more disclosure in connection with cases of child abuse and various scandals inability of parents who often resulting in the death of children (for example the case of Maria Colwell in England in 1973). These cases raised concern about the magnitude of risk that must be borne by the children yanq parents less able to nurture. The next concern is what prompted the government to more actively provide this functionality in the 1980's and 1990's. Academic perspective, among others, put forward by Fox Harding (1991) that reviews how the state / government can help children from poor families caring. This view is related to the ideas of the larger implications of child psychology, the importance of genetic kinship, and the role of the state in general. Next comes a number of prominent perspectives. The first emphasizes the importance of families permanen independent and well established in the care of children so that this perspective does not call for increased government role in the functioning of child care. While the second perspective is more focused on the fact of poor care of children in many families, so he advocated increasing the role of government in order to protect children. The third perspective of trying to bridge the two previous perspectives by recognizing that the family is the best institution for the care of children, but we have also recognized the fact many families who are unable to protect and nurture the children so that his role had to be taken over by the government. But clearly, all perspective is emphasized that all children have the right to acquire good parenting. Meanwhile adapula fourth perspective that emphasizes the importance of children's rights as an equal party with parents and government. This right should be recognized for the sake of future generations. But there are some extreme idea in this perspective. Among others, it is said that the rights of children was identical to the rights of parents, such as the right to work (see, among others, Farson, 1978; Holt 1975). But many of those who recognize that children do have rights, but they can not be removed just like adults. How did the children require special protection and guidance that govern the requirements of home and family to care for children (eg Children Act 1989 in England); regulations prohibiting the physical punishment of children (eg Newel 1989) and the aegis of children's rights in timum as stipulated in the UN convention on the rights of children in 1989 (this is the first international legal instrument on children's rights that explicitly recognizes the right of children to speak in any process that will affect their lives (Freeman 1993). Period of the 1980s and 1990s characterized by an intense debate about the policy regarding children. On the one hand this is positive because it indicates that increased attention was toward the children. On the other hand there is an element of conflict is serious enough that the struggle between the government and parents in the matter of child care. The number of cases suggests the ability of single-parent families in the care of children like never before. Many people highlighted the lack of legal provision for fathers who abandon their obligations. It has been suggested for the father who did not join the child care bears certain penalties as defined in the Child Support Act 1991, which later become a model similar settings in the state of Wisconsin and Australia. susutnya Concern over the father role is closely related to various other social problems such as cracks broader shift in social and family norms (see Dennis and Erdos 1992). Parenting children remains a controversial area. Those who emphasize the role of parents and who see the importance of the role of the state in child care have not found a deal. This is complicated by the debate about the role of family in general, and various shifts that have occurred in society, in addition to standard care about the children themselves.

DEFINITIONS - UNDERSTANDING Childhood

In most of the history and for most children around the world, childhood they experienced far from ideal. What they get is not a condition that is fully diwamai affection, protection, and all things fun. Many children who must fend for themselves to sustain life in the midst of a hostile conditions (see Scheper-Hughes research results, 1987). Realizing this, the UN convention on the rights of children in 1976 did not install the ideal standard that is too grandiose, but merely the extent to which improvements can be realized with respect to the rights of children dalarn terms of economic, social and cultural. Overview of childhood ideal was varied, both historically and culturally. Philippe Aries (1962 [19 601) said the importance of childhood in Europe only realized in the early 13th century. Previous childhood was not regarded as something special, and the same with the next period in one's life. Conception of childhood was just experiencing a radical change (so close to the current conception) in the 17th century with the rise of modern ideas about families and schools. The shift again occurred in the 19th century. Even then the modern world "obsessed by problems of physical, moral and sexual abuse of children" (Aries 1962119601: 411) If Aries is true, then is not if it happened to most of the theorists menoniol in the history of psychology such as Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget devoted his attention to understand children and the process of human development into adulthood. Freud focused on the identification and development of awareness of child sexual. A child become moral beings through guilt control of sexual impulses and aggressive. Piaget (see his work in 1926 and 1935) devoted his life to understand children in cognitively construct the various concepts of human involvement in the surrounding world, and also how they understand the numbers, time, physical causality, measurement and so forth. The behavioral psychologist tries to reveal how the children, like animals, "conditioned" to behave in such a manner towards the environment, including other people, which led to reward and punishment. Kian advance the study of animal behavior and the study of human cognitive abilities are supported by an increasingly sophisticated knowledge of biology has revealed many weaknesses learning theory (learning theory) which was originally adopted. But the idea that children were "conditioned" by the environment still embraced by sociologists and anthropologists who over saw the children as part of society and not highlight them as "individuals. For example, anthropologist Margaret Mead, who is known thanks to his work on childhood and adulthood in Samoa before, noted the existence of cultural conditioning that will determine what and how culture is learned by children. Meanwhile, the theorists of "culture and personality" is more interested in using psychoanalytic theory to understand the behavior of children in Indo-gai cultural context (see eg Whiting and Child, 1953) Spread of Piaget's ideas to America and the increasing dominance of the cognitive approach in psychology during the decade of the 1960s and 1970s to strengthen the idea that children are always conditioned by the environment, or more radically, they merely mimic the behavior of adults. This is what led to the theories of socialization, "which states that children are actively involved in the process of understanding in accordance with what vana dioahami by adults. Piaget himself actually condemned by colleagues from Russia, Vygotsky, over its failure to integrate the historical parameters (socio-cultural) and social interaction in his study on children's cognition (eg Iihat Vygotsky, 1962 [1934J), so he missed seeing the extent of the facts cognitive abilities of children at an early age (Iihat also eg Smith et al, 1988), and failed also to understand how the baby is aware of himself when interacting with others (see eg Stern, 1985). Psychological models of childhood, especially emphasizing the active and transformative nature of the process of cognitive development so that the models tend to assume that the outcome of cognition is unknown. In anthropology and sociology, the child is considered as passive recipients of adult ideas. But since the 1980's began nnuncul interdisciplinary approaches in an effort to understanding these childhood. These studies emphasize the concept of children as agents or as producers as well as the product of a dynamic collective process that we call "history" (see for example, Kessel and Siegel, 1983; James and Prout, 1992). In fact the child is always different from their parents and that means they are actually also able to create new forms of social relationship itself that is a manifestation of cultural continuity and cultural change as well. That is, other than to receive, they also create their own values. This approach focuses on how the child, the child's cognitive construct concepts that refer to the previous domain we consider the affairs of adults only, ie starting from the domain of kinship, economics, politics, to religion (eg iihat Toren, 1990). Starting from the new theoretical approaches, the study of childhood in anthropology and sociology has shifted, and the same is happening in the field of psychology.

KNOW YOUR CLOSER Noam Chomsky (1928 -)

Noam Chomsky is a language theorists, philosophers., Intellectual history, and social critics. He is one of the most influential thinkers in the modern period and one of the few scientists whose work is read very widely. Having earned a doctorate in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955, he joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who promote it as a full professor in 1961, a permanent member of the faculty council in 1966, and finally placing it as one of the members of the senate of the institute of teacher very prestigious (most members are Nobel prize winner) in 1976. Lots of famous contemporary linguistic experts today who was once his students, and many of them also gain knowledge from it (Noam guiding doctoral dissertation about a hundred to date). Most original contribution has opened the way for the development of cognitive sciences, where the model rnasih used until now. For his services was Noam accept the Kyoto prize for basic sciences category in 1988. The model is formulated specifically human language is often referred to as generative grammar (transformational) and it was a masterpiece that revived interest in the world of language study. His role is equivalent to Wilhelm von Humboldt or Otto Jespersen in generating interest in the formal sciences in the late 1930's. The formulation of the theory of linguistic function, namely the theory of computation, open the eyes of many people how the field of linguistics is an event study is interesting and important. A deep understanding of philosophy, logic. and mathematics are also allowed to use techniques that are more sophisticated in linguistics than it ever used in previous periods. Since the late 1950's, Noam also play an important role in the development of linguistic algebra, which is one branch of abstract algebra that are now part of computer science. Original theory regarding the formulation of language also becomes a foundation for the growth (since 1980) model and the principles and parameters that are very helpful improvements minimalist program in the early 1990s. This new model is the first to suggest a substantive solution of fundamental problems in language acquisition at the same time a radical breakthrough in the tradition of linguistic analysis for ribun years. But we do not quite call it a foothold generative grammar because many other important things he brought. The model also has created a variety of changes and important advances in the study of language. Various open new fields of study, so the chances of scientists driven to gain a deeper understanding and more. In addition, the rate of change and progress that took place today is still pretty fast even if measured by the standard in the 1990s, so that generative grammar in the first decade of the 20th century is still as important for now. That the minimalist program has been close to perfect at this time does not mean that the prospects for the development of linguistic studies and other related disciplines has narrowed, even as believed by Chomsky himself, the prospect of its development in the mid 1990s and subsequent periods remain open. The next important consequence of the technical work of Chomsky is strong evidence to reveal the epistemological rationalism as proposed by Chomsky himself. It's no secret that Chomsky is strongly influenced by the development of philosophy from the outset and that he turned into a serious study of the Cartesian, which he raised and he managed to update, not long after he discovered a revolutionary breakthrough. Those discoveries also enable it to move further away from critical programmatic findings from the Cartesian tradition. In other words, he not only managed to understand the tradition of thinking but also develop it. So, he helped to create a developing era of modern philosophy is not merely a continuation of the cognitive revolution in the decade of the 1950s. For Chomsky, as for Descartes, there is no significant variation among humans, despite its superficial physical aspects are quite diverse. This means that each human being has the same nature and equal. Therefore, Chomsky strongly opposed to racism, sexism, (sex differentiation) and various other inelgaliterian trends. This belief, and technical capabilities linguistic very deep, is the foundation for the success of further studies about human nature and society, including the basic concepts in human social order. But this does not mean that Chomsky is a singular figure in the study of social character, or as the creator of "universal grammar" (a new cognitive science). But his work in development studies, including in understanding the link between social interaction and linguistic structure, can not be understated. In fact, the explanation of both of these linkages and relationship with other cognitive domains, has opened new perspectives in the social sciences and humanities. His theory of social relations and politics, which seems contrary to the instincts won freedom "and encouragement of self-actualization as one of the basic human needs (as well as distinguish them from animals) tend to give a sympathetic review of the idea of ​​class struggle and the basic ideas underlying. But writing -the words "non-professional" Chomsky is more accurately described as an analysis of contemporary society, and not social or political theory, which packed with high intellectual standards. Attitudes egalitemya also often encouraged to be critical of Chomsky sepakterjang own country which is now considered the only superpower.

DEFINITIONS - UNDERSTANDING CITIZENSHIP

Only countries, namely international entities are widely recognized, is capable of providing citizenship. A person can not be regarded as citizens of a national ethnic group or nation that is not managed by the state. But the distinction between citizen (of a republic) and servant (of a monarchy) when democracy loses its meaning in various places that still adhered to the monarchical system has matured. Even countries that are now non-democratic international stigmatization against people rejected them by refusing the term citizenship itself. Citizenship is a legal status regulated by each state. Rights and obligations of each country expressed the same, and no longer second-class citizens for reasons of birthplace, gender, belief, behavior, race or offspring. Based on this citizenship status, then each person mempu-cal rights "civil" or the right to obtain state protection for the safety and ownership. Raymond Aron (1974) asserts that "modern citizenship is essentially a human right, which is difficult to find in many ancient political units (such as the Roman empire) is more interested in terms of freedom and procedural guarantees for every citizen. In addition to these civil rights, citizen state also has what is called social rights. These rights guarantee every citizen to enjoy a certain standard of social life. But we can not forget the fact that such rights were already there in ancient political units. In Rome, known what is called the panem et circenses, or certain welfare rights guaranteed by the authorities for each of its citizens, and the right was far greater than the rights enjoyed by citizens of political units which embrace state socialism as well as the ancient kingdoms in America or Asia. In addition, the civil rights which is the cornerstone of democracy, and for centuries regarded as the natural wealth of every individual who even had to be protected also from possible transgressions by the state or ruler. Confidence is what color the important clauses in the constitution America as in the First Amendment, which reads "Congress should not make laws that can interfere with freedom of speech or freedom of the press ..." While social rights are not always manifested by well, whether it's for reasons of ideological and socio-economic. That's why Westbrook ( 1993: 341) argues that "civil rights is part of politics, while social rights are gifts from politics". On the other hand, every citizen has the obligation to obey any rules set by the state. As said by Camilleri and Falk (1992 : 18), "adherence to the competent authority is an important characteristic of citizenship". Support to country, ranging from paying taxes until the war risked their lives defending the country, is also part of the obligations of citizens. But most political philosophers emphasize the existence of state to serve the population, and that means citizens should also have the power and political control of state / government to ensure that their responsibility is really comparable to the rights they had obtained. Because it is easy for us to understand why citizenship, which originally only classification membership of a community, an important element of the three prominent ideology along the modern era. In the two ideologies, namely nationalism and democracy. are both recommended an active citizenship and dedication. They tend to reject the leadership by a person or group who are not high-minded patriot or not high-minded democrats. Whereas in the third ideology, the ideology of the welfare state (wel-fare state), which emphasized the passive nature of citizenship as well as consumers in the market. This ideology is close to the Hobbesian conception which states that authorities should give benefits to those who lead. The three ideologies are different opinions in a number of important aspects such as the relevance of ethnicity in national life, as well as the principle of majority rule for the creation of democracy. As a consequence the problem of citizenship is also still a matter of debate until the future.